Mod Fashion Greasers in the 60s

Subculture in England

Ii mid-1960s mods on a customised Lambretta scooter

Modernistic is a subculture that began in London and spread throughout United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland and elsewhere, eventually influencing fashions and trends in other countries,^[1] and continues today on a smaller scale. Focused on music and way, the subculture has its roots in a small grouping of stylish London-based young men in the late 1950s who were termed modernists because they listened to modern jazz.^[2] Elements of the mod subculture include fashion (oft tailor-fabricated suits); music (including soul, rhythm and dejection, ska, jazz, and subsequently splintering off into freakbeat); and motor scooters (usually Lambretta or Vespa). In the mid-1960s, the subculture listened to power pop stone groups with mod following, such as The Who and The Minor Faces, after the pinnacle Mod era. The original mod scene was associated with amphetamine-fuelled all-night dancing at clubs.^[iii]

During the early on to mid-1960s, every bit modern grew and spread throughout the Uk, certain elements of the modernistic scene became engaged in well-publicised clashes with members of a rival subculture: rockers.^[iv] The mods and rockers conflict led sociologist Stanley Cohen to use the term "moral panic" in his written report about the two youth subcultures,^[5] which examined media coverage of the modernistic and rocker riots in the 1960s.^[six]

By 1965, conflicts between mods and rockers began to subside and mods increasingly gravitated towards popular fine art and psychedelia. London became synonymous with way, music, and pop culture in these years, a period often referred to as "Swinging London". During this fourth dimension, modernistic fashions spread to other countries and became pop in the United States and elsewhere—with mod now viewed less as an isolated subculture, simply emblematic of the larger youth civilization of the era.

Equally mod became more than cosmopolitan during the "Swinging London" period, some working class "street mods" splintered off, forming other groups such every bit what eventually became known as skinheads. There was a mod revival in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s, which attempted to replicate the "scooter" menstruum look and styles of the early to mid-1960s. It was followed by a similar mod revival in N America in the early on 1980s, particularly in southern California.^[7] ^[eight]

Etymology and usage [edit]

The term modern derives from modernist, a term used in the 1950s to describe modern jazz musicians and fans.^[ix] This usage contrasted with the term trad, which described traditional jazz players and fans. The 1959 novel Accented Beginners describes modernists every bit young modern jazz fans who apparel in abrupt modern Italian clothes. The novel may be ane of the primeval examples of the term existence written to describe young British manner-conscious modern jazz fans. This usage of the give-and-take modernist should not be confused with modernism in the context of literature, art, blueprint and architecture. From the mid-to-belatedly 1960s onwards, the mass media ofttimes used the term modernistic in a wider sense to describe annihilation that was believed to be pop, fashionable or mod.

Paul Jobling and David Crowley argued that the definition of modernistic can exist difficult to pin down, considering throughout the subculture'south original era, information technology was "prone to continuous reinvention."^[10] They claimed that since the modern scene was so pluralist, the word mod was an umbrella term that covered several singled-out sub-scenes. Terry Rawlings argued that mods are difficult to ascertain considering the subculture started out as a "mysterious semi-undercover world", which the Who'south manager Peter Meaden summarised as "make clean living under difficult circumstances."^[11]

History 1958–1969 [edit]

George Melly wrote that mods were initially a small group of clothes-focused English working course immature men insisting on clothes and shoes tailored to their fashion, who emerged during the mod jazz nail of the late 1950s.^[12] Early mods watched French and Italian art films and read Italian magazines to look for fashion ideas.^[eleven] They usually held semi-skilled manual jobs or low grade white-collar positions such as a clerk, messenger or office male child. According to Dick Hebdige, mods created a parody of the consumer society that they lived in.^[thirteen]

Early on 1960s [edit]

Quadrophenia exhibit at the Cotswold Motor Museum in Bourton-on-the-Water in 2007

According to Hebdige, by around 1963, the mod subculture had gradually accumulated the identifying symbols that later came to be associated with the scene, such equally scooters, amphetamine pills and R&B music.^[fourteen] While clothes were notwithstanding important at that time, they could be ready-fabricated. Dick Hebdige wrote the term mod covered a number of styles including the emergence of Swinging London, though to him it divers Melly's working form clothes-conscious teenagers living in London and due south England in the early to mid-1960s.^[fourteen]

Mary Anne Long argued that "first hand accounts and gimmicky theorists bespeak to the Jewish upper-working or centre-class of London's E End and suburbs."^[15] Simon Frith asserted that the mod subculture had its roots in the 1950s beatnik java bar civilization, which catered to art school students in the radical Bohemian scene in London.^[16] Steve Sparks, whose claim is to be ane of the original mods, agrees that before mod became commercialised, information technology was essentially an extension of the beatnik civilization: "It comes from 'modernist', it was to exercise with modern jazz and to practise with Sartre" and existentialism.^[15] Sparks argued that "Mod has been much misunderstood ... every bit this working-class, scooter-riding precursor of skinheads."

Coffee bars were attractive to British youth because, in contrast to typical pubs, which closed at near 11pm, they were open until the early hours of the morning. Java confined had jukeboxes, which in some cases reserved space in the machines for the customers' own records. In the belatedly 1950s, java bars were associated with jazz and blues, simply in the early 1960s, they began playing more than R&B music. Frith noted that although java bars were originally aimed at middle-form fine art school students, they began to facilitate an intermixing of youth from different backgrounds and classes.^[17] At these venues, which Frith called the "get-go sign of the youth movement", young people met collectors of R&B and blues records, who introduced them to new types of African-American music.^{[ citation needed ]}

As the mod subculture grew in London during the early-to-mid-1960s, tensions could arise between the mods, frequently riding highly decorated motor scooters, and their main rivals, the rockers, a British subculture who favoured rockabilly, early stone'n'roll, motorcycles and leather jackets, and considered the mods effeminate, because of their interest in manner.^[xviii] Trigger-happy clashes could ensue between the ii groups.^[18] This menstruation was later immortalised by songwriter Pete Townshend, in the Who'south 1973 concept album, Quadrophenia.^[nineteen]

Still, after 1964, clashes between the two groups largely subsided, as mod expanded and came to be accepted by the larger youth generation throughout the U.k. as a symbol of all that was new.^[twenty] ^[21] During this fourth dimension London became a mecca for rock music, with popular bands such every bit The Who and The Small Faces appealing to a largely mod audience,^[22] as well as the preponderance of hip fashions, in a period often referred to equally Swinging London.

Mid-tardily 1960s [edit]

Swinging London [edit]

Every bit numerous British rock bands of the mid-1960s began to adopt a modern expect and following,^[22] the scope of the subculture grew beyond its original confines and the focus began to change. By 1966, proletarian aspects of the scene in London had waned as fashion and pop-culture elements continued to abound, non merely in England, but elsewhere.^[1]

This period, portrayed by Alberto Sordi'due south film in Give thanks you very much, and in Michelangelo Antonioni'due south 1966 film Blowup, ^[23] was typified past popular art, Carnaby Street boutiques, alive music, and discothèques. Many associate this era with manner model Twiggy, miniskirts, and bold geometrical patterns on brightly coloured wearing apparel. During these years, it exerted a considerable influence on the worldwide spread of mod.^[i]

United States and elsewhere [edit]

Equally mod was going through transformation in England, it became all the rage in the Us and around the world, every bit many young people adopted its look.^[1] However, the worldwide experience differed from that of the early scene in London in that it was based mainly on the pop civilization aspect, influenced by British stone musicians. By now, mod was thought of more equally a general youth-civilisation manner rather than as a separate subgroup among dissimilar contentious factions.^[20] ^[21] ^[24]

American musicians, in the wake of the British Invasion, adopted the look of mod apparel, longer hairstyles, and Beatle boots.^[25] The exploitation documentary Mondo Mod provides a glimpse at mod'southward influence on the Sunset Strip and West Hollywood scene of late 1966.^[26] Mod increasingly became associated with psychedelic stone and the early hippie motility, and past 1967 more exotic looks, such equally Nehru jackets and dearest beads came into faddy.^[27] ^[28] ^[29] Its trappings were reflected on pop American Boob tube shows such every bit Express joy-In and The Modernistic Squad.^[30] ^[31] ^[32] ^[33]

Decline [edit]

Dick Hebdige argued that the subculture lost its vitality when it became commercialised and stylised to the point that mod clothing styles were being created "from to a higher place" past clothing companies and past Tv shows similar Prepare Steady Become!, rather than being adult past young people customising their wearing apparel and combining different fashions.^[34]

As psychedelic rock and the hippie subculture grew more than popular in the Uk, much of modernistic, for a time, seemed intertwined with those movements. Still, subsequently 1968 it dissipated, as tastes began to favor a less style-conscious, denim and tie-dyed look, forth with a decreased interest in nightlife. Bands such as The Who and Small Faces began to change and, by the end of the decade, moved away from modernistic. Additionally, the original mods of the early 1960s were coming to the age of marriage and kid-rearing, which meant many of them no longer had the time or coin for their youthful pastimes of order-going, tape-shopping, and buying dress.

Afterwards developments 1969–nowadays [edit]

Offshoots [edit]

Some street-orientated mods, commonly of lesser ways, sometimes referred to as hard mods, remained active well into the tardily 1960s, but tended to become increasingly discrete from the Swinging London scene and the burgeoning hippie movement.^[35] ^[36] By 1967, they considered near of the people in the Swinging London scene to be "soft mods" or "peacock mods", as styles, at that place, became increasingly extravagant, frequently featuring highly ruffled, brocaded, or laced fabrics in Day-Glo colours.^[29] ^[35] ^[36]

Modern graffiti in Italy from 2007

Many of the hard mods lived in the same economically depressed areas of South London as West Indian immigrants, so these mods favoured a different kind of attire, that emulated the rude male child look of Trilby hats and also-brusk trousers.^[37] These "aspiring 'white negros'" listened to Jamaican ska and mingled with black rude boys at W Indian nightclubs like Ram Jam, A-Train and Sloopy'due south.^[38] ^[39] ^[twoscore] Hebdige claimed that the hard mods were fatigued to black civilization and ska music in office because the educated, middle-form hippie motion'south drug-orientated and intellectual music did not accept any relevance for them.^[41] He argued that the difficult mods were attracted to ska because information technology was a cloak-and-dagger, underground, non-commercialised music that was disseminated through informal channels such as business firm parties and clubs.^[42]

By the cease of the 1960s, the hard mods had become known as skinheads,^[43] who, in their early days, would be known for the same dearest of soul, rocksteady and early reggae.^[44] ^[45] ^[46] Because of their fascination with black civilization, the early skinheads were, except in isolated situations, largely devoid of the overt racism and fascism that would later on become associated with whole wings of the movement in the mid to belatedly 1970s.^[47] The early skinheads retained bones elements of modernistic fashion—such as Fred Perry and Ben Sherman shirts, Sta-Prest trousers and Levi's jeans—but mixed them with working class-orientated accessories such as braces and Dr. Martens work boots. Hebdige claimed that as early as the Margate and Brighton brawls between mods and rockers, some mods were seen wearing boots and braces and sporting shut cropped haircuts (for practical reasons, as long hair was a liability in industrial jobs and street fights).

Mods and ex-mods were also part of the early northern soul scene, a subculture based on obscure 1960s and 1970s American soul records. Some mods evolved into, or merged with, subcultures such every bit individualists, stylists, and scooterboys.^[11]

Revivals and later influences [edit]

A modern revival started in the late 1970s in the Great britain, with thousands of modern revivalists attending scooter rallies in locations such as Scarborough and the Isle of Wight. This revival was partly inspired by the 1979 film Quadrophenia, which explores the original 1960s motion, and by mod-influenced bands such equally The Jam, Secret Affair, The Lambrettas, Regal Hearts, The Specials and The Chords, who drew on the free energy of new moving ridge music.

The British modernistic revival was followed past a revival in North America in the early on 1980s, particularly in Southern California, led by bands such every bit The Untouchables.^[7] ^[viii] The mod scene in Los Angeles and Orange County was partly influenced by the 2 Tone ska revival in England, and was unique in its racial multifariousness, with blackness, white, Hispanic and Asian participants. The 1990s Britpop scene featured noticeable mod influences on bands such as Oasis, Mistiness, Ocean Colour Scene and The Bluetones. Popular 21st century musicians Miles Kane^[48] and Jake Bugg^[49] are also followers of the modernistic subculture.

Quadrophenia alley, June 2020.

Characteristics [edit]

Dick Hebdige argued that when trying to understand 1960s modern culture, one has to try and "penetrate and decipher the mythology of the mods".^[l] Terry Rawlings argued that the modernistic scene adult when British teenagers began to reject the "boring, timid, old-fashioned, and uninspired" British culture effectually them, with its repressed and class-obsessed mentality and its "naffness".^[eleven] Mods rejected the "faulty pap" of 1950s popular music and sappy honey songs. They aimed at beingness "cool, groovy, precipitous, hip, and smart" by embracing "all things sexy and streamlined", especially when they were new, exciting, controversial or mod.^[11] Hebdige claimed that the modernistic subculture came nigh every bit part of the participants' desire to empathise the "mysterious complexity of the metropolis" and to get close to black culture of the Jamaican rude boy, because mods felt that black civilization "ruled the night hours" and that it had more than streetwise "savoir faire".^[fifty] Shari Benstock and Suzanne Ferriss argued that at the "core of the British Mod rebellion was a blatant fetishising of the American consumer culture" that had "eroded the moral cobweb of England."^[51] In doing so, the mods "mocked the class system that had gotten their fathers nowhere" and created a "rebellion based on consuming pleasures".

The influence of British newspapers on creating the public perception of mods as having a leisure-filled club-going lifestyle tin can exist seen in a 1964 article in the Sunday Times. The paper interviewed a 17-year-quondam mod who went out clubbing seven nights a calendar week and spent Saturday afternoons shopping for clothes and records. However, few British teens and immature adults would have had the time and coin to spend this much fourth dimension going to nightclubs. Paul Jobling and David Crowley argued that about young mods worked nine to v at semi-skilled jobs, which meant that they had much less leisure time and merely a modest income to spend during their time off.^[52]

Fashion [edit]

Paul Jobling and David Crowley called the mod subculture a "fashion-obsessed and hedonistic cult of the hyper-cool" young adults who lived in metropolitan London or the new towns of the southward. Due to the increasing abundance of mail service-war United kingdom, the youths of the early 1960s were one of the starting time generations that did not accept to contribute their money from after-school jobs to the family unit finances. As modernistic teens and young adults began using their disposable income to buy stylish clothes, the first youth-targeted bazaar clothing stores opened in London in the Carnaby Street and King's Road districts.^[53] The streets' names became symbols of, one magazine later stated, "an countless frieze of mini-skirted, booted, off-white-haired athwart angels".^[54] Newspaper accounts from the mid-1960s focussed on the mod obsession with clothes, often detailing the prices of the expensive suits worn by young mods, and seeking out extreme cases such as a young mod who claimed that he would "become without food to buy clothes".^[52]

Two youth subcultures helped pave the way for mod fashion past breaking new ground: the beatniks, with their Bohemian image of berets and black turtlenecks, and the Teddy Boys, from whom mod fashion inherited its "narcissistic and fastidious [fashion] tendencies" and the immaculate dandy await.^[55] The Teddy Boys paved the way for making male person interest in style socially adequate, considering prior to the Teddy Boys, male involvement in fashion in Great britain was more often than not associated with the secret homosexual subculture's flamboyant dressing style.

Jobling and Crowley argued that for working class mods, the subculture's focus on fashion and music was a release from the "humdrum of daily existence" at their jobs.^[52] Jobling and Crowley noted that while the subculture had strong elements of consumerism and shopping, mods were not passive consumers; instead they were very self-conscious and critical, customising "existing styles, symbols and artefacts" such as the Union flag and the Royal Air Forcefulness roundel, and putting them on their jackets in a pop fine art-style, and putting their personal signatures on their mode.^[ten] Mods adopted new Italian and French styles in part every bit a reaction to the rural and pocket-sized-town rockers, with their 1950s-style leather motorcycle clothes and American greaser wait.^{[ citation needed ]}

Male mods adopted a smoothen, sophisticated look that included tailor-made suits with narrow lapels (sometimes made of mohair), thin ties, push button-downwardly collar shirts, wool or cashmere jumpers (crewneck or V-neck), Chelsea or Beatle boots, loafers, Clarks desert boots, bowling shoes, and hairstyles that imitated the wait of French Nouvelle Vague moving-picture show actors.^[56] A few male mods went against gender norms by using eye shadow, eye-pencil or fifty-fifty lipstick.^[56] Mods chose scooters over motorbikes partly because they were a symbol of Italian style and because their body panels concealed moving parts and made them less likely to stain wearing apparel with oil or route dust. Many mods wore ex-military parkas while driving scooters in gild to keep their clothes clean.

Many female mods dressed androgynously, with brusk haircuts, men'southward trousers or shirts, flat shoes, and little makeup — often just pale foundation, brown eye shadow, white or pale lipstick and false eyelashes.^[57] Miniskirts became progressively shorter between the early and mid-1960s. As female modern fashion became more mainstream, slender models like Jean Shrimpton and Twiggy began to exemplify the modernistic look. Maverick fashion designers emerged, such as Mary Quant, who was known for her miniskirt designs, and John Stephen, who sold a line named "His Clothes" and whose clients included bands such as Small Faces.^[56] The television programme Ready Steady Go! helped spread awareness of mod fashions to a larger audience. Mod-culture continues to influence fashion, with the ongoing trend for modernistic-inspired styles such as 3-push button suits, Chelsea boots and mini dresses. The Modernistic Revival of the 1980s and 1990s led to a new era of mod-inspired fashion, driven by bands such every bit Madness, The Specials and Haven. The popularity of the This Is England film and TV series also kept mod mode in the public heart. Today's mod icons include Miles Kane (frontman of the Last Shadow Puppets), cyclist Bradley Wiggins and Paul Weller, 'The ModFather'.

Music [edit]

The early mods listened to the "sophisticated smoother mod jazz" of musicians such as Miles Davis, Charlie Parker, Dave Brubeck and the Modern Jazz Quartet, likewise as the American rhythm and blues (R&B) of artists such as Bo Diddley and Muddy Waters. The music scene of the Mods was a mix of mod jazz, R&B, psychedelic rock and soul.^[58] Terry Rawlings wrote that mods became "defended to R&B and their own dances."^[eleven] Black American servicemen, stationed in Britain during the early on role of the Cold State of war, brought over R&B and soul records that were unavailable in United kingdom, and they oft sold these to young people in London.^[59] Starting around 1960, mods embraced the off-beat, Jamaican ska music of artists such as the Skatalites, Owen Gray, Derrick Morgan and Prince Buster on record labels such as Melodisc, Starlite and Bluebeat.^[threescore]

The original mods gathered at all-night clubs such as The Flamingo and The Marquee in London to hear the latest records and bear witness off their dance moves. Equally the modernistic subculture spread beyond the United Kingdom, other clubs became popular, including Twisted Cycle Club in Manchester.^[61]

The British R&B/rock bands The Rolling Stones, The Yardbirds and The Kinks all had modernistic followings, and other bands emerged that were specifically mod-orientated.^[22] These included The Who, Small Faces, The Cosmos, The Action, The Fume and John's Children.^[22] The Who'southward early promotional cloth tagged them every bit playing "maximum rhythm and blues", and a proper name change in 1964 from The Who to The High Numbers was an attempt to cater even more to the modernistic market. Later the commercial failure of the single "Zoot Accommodate/I'm the Face", the ring changed its proper noun back to The Who.^[22] Although The Beatles dressed like mods for a while (later dressing like rockers earlier), their trounce music was not as pop as British R&B amid mods.^[62]

The late 1970s saw an explosive mod revival in England due to the popularity of new moving ridge modern band The Jam and the success of the movie Quadrophenia in 1979. The Jam were fronted by Paul Weller who became known equally 'The Modfather'. Other mod revival bands that emerged at this time were The Chords, Imperial Hearts, Secret Affair, The Merton Parkas and The Lambrettas.

Amphetamines [edit]

A notable office of the mod subculture was recreational amphetamine use, which was used to fuel all-nighttime dances at clubs. Paper reports described dancers emerging from clubs at five a.m. with dilated pupils.^[three] Some mods consumed a combined amphetamine/barbiturate called Drinamyl, nicknamed "purple hearts".^[63] Due to this association with amphetamines, Pete Meaden'south "clean living" aphorism virtually the mod subculture may seem contradictory, but the drug was still legal in Britain in the early 1960s, and mods used the drug for stimulation and alertness, which they viewed equally different from the intoxication caused by booze and other drugs.^[3] Andrew Wilson argued that for a significant minority, "amphetamines symbolised the smart, on-the-ball, cool paradigm" and that they sought "stimulation non intoxication ... greater awareness, not escape" and "conviction and articulacy" rather than the "drunken rowdiness of previous generations."^[3]

Wilson argued that the significance of amphetamines to the mod culture was similar to that of LSD and cannabis inside the subsequent hippie counterculture. Dick Hebdige argued that mods used amphetamines to extend their leisure time into the early hours of the morning and as a mode of bridging the gap between their hostile and daunting everyday piece of work lives and the "inner world" of dancing and dressing up in their off-hours.^[64]

Scooters [edit]

Many mods drove motor scooters, usually Vespas or Lambrettas.^[65] Scooters were a practical and affordable course of transportation for 1960s teens, since until the early 1970s, public transport stopped relatively early in the night. For teens with depression-paying jobs, scooters were cheaper and easier to park than cars, and they could be bought through newly available hire buy plans.

Vespa with feature collection of mirrors

Mods also treated scooters as a style accompaniment. Italian scooters were preferred due to their clean-lined, curving shapes and gleaming chrome, with sales driven by shut associations between dealerships and clubs, such every bit the Ace of Herts.^{[ commendation needed ]}

For young mods, Italian scooters were the "apotheosis of continental style and a way to escape the working-course row houses of their upbringing".^[66] Mods customised their scooters by painting them in "2-tone and candyflake and overaccessorized [them] with luggage racks, crash bars, and scores of mirrors and fog lights".^[66] Some mods added four, x, or as many as 30 mirrors to their scooters. They often put their names on the small-scale windscreen. They sometimes took their engine side panels and front bumpers to electroplating shops to get them covered in highly reflective chrome.

Hard mods (who later on evolved into the skinheads) began riding scooters more for practical reasons. Their scooters were either unmodified or cutdown, which was nicknamed a "skelly".^[67] Lambrettas were cutdown to the blank frame, and the unibody (monocoque)-design Vespas had their torso panels slimmed downwardly or reshaped.

Subsequently the seaside resort brawls, the media began to associate Italian scooters with violent mods. Much later, writers described groups of mods riding scooters together as a "menacing symbol of group solidarity" that was "converted into a weapon".^[68] ^[69] With events like the 6 Nov 1966, "scooter charge" on Buckingham Palace, the scooter, along with the mods' brusk hair and suits, began to exist seen as a symbol of subversion.^[70]

Gender roles [edit]

Stuart Hall and Tony Jefferson argued in 1993 that compared to other youth subcultures, the mod scene gave young women high visibility and relative autonomy.^[71] They wrote that this status may have been related both to the attitudes of the mod young men, who accepted the thought that a immature woman did not have to be attached to a human being, and to the evolution of new occupations for young women, which gave them an income and made them more independent. Hall and Jefferson noted the increasing number of jobs in boutiques and women'southward clothing stores, which, while poorly paid and lacking opportunities for advancement, gave young women disposable income, status and a glamorous sense of dressing up and going into town to piece of work.^[72]

Hall and Jefferson argued that the presentable image of female mod fashions meant it was easier for young mod women to integrate with the non-subculture aspects of their lives (dwelling house, school and work) than for members of other subcultures.^[72] The emphasis on clothing and a stylised expect for women demonstrated the "same fussiness for particular in dress" as their male mod counterparts.^[72]

Shari Benstock and Suzanne Ferriss claimed that the emphasis in the mod subculture on consumerism and shopping was the "ultimate barb to male person working-form traditions" in the United Kingdom, considering in the working-class tradition, shopping was usually washed past women.^[51] They argued that British mods were "worshipping leisure and money ... scorning the masculine earth of hard work and honest labour" past spending their fourth dimension listening to music, collecting records, socialising, and dancing at all-night clubs.^[51]

Conflicts with rockers [edit]

In early-1960s Britain, the two primary youth subcultures were mods and rockers. Mods were described in 2012 as "effeminate, stuck-upwards, emulating the middle classes, aspiring to a competitive sophistication, snobbish, [and] phony", and rockers as "hopelessly naive, loutish, [and] scruffy", emulating the motorcycle gang members in the moving-picture show The Wild One, past wearing leather jackets and riding motorcycles.^[4] ^[73] Dick Hebdige claimed in 2006 that the "mods rejected the rocker's rough conception of masculinity, the transparency of his motivations, his clumsiness"; the rockers viewed the vanity and obsession with dress of the mods as immasculine.^[xiv]

Scholars fence how much contact the two subcultures had during the 1960s. Hebdige argued that mods and rockers had fiddling contact with each other because they tended to come from dissimilar regions of England (mods from London and rockers from rural areas), and considering they had "totally disparate goals and lifestyles".^[l] Marking Gilman, however, claimed that both mods and rockers could be seen at football matches.^[74]

John Covach wrote that in the United Kingdom, rockers were often engaged in brawls with mods.^[4] BBC News stories from May 1964 stated that mods and rockers were jailed after riots in seaside resort towns on the south and e coasts of England, such as Margate, Brighton, Bournemouth and Clacton.^[75] The "mods and rockers" disharmonize was explored as an case of "moral panic" by sociologist Stanley Cohen in his study Folk Devils and Moral Panics,^[5] which examined media coverage of the mod and rocker riots in the 1960s.^[6] Although Cohen best-selling that mods and rockers had some fights in the mid-1960s, he argued that they were no different from the evening brawls that occurred between not-mod and not-rocker youths throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, both at seaside resorts and afterward football game games.^[76]

Newspapers of the time were eager to draw the modern and rocker clashes as being of "disastrous proportions", and labelled mods and rockers as "sawdust Caesars", "vermin" and "louts".^[five] Newspaper editorials fanned the flames of hysteria, such as a Birmingham Mail service editorial in May 1964 which warned that mods and rockers were "internal enemies" in the Britain who would "bring about disintegration of a nation's character". The magazine Police Review argued that the mods and rockers' purported lack of respect for law and order could cause violence to "surge and flame like a wood burn down".^[five] Equally a result of this media coverage, two British Members of Parliament travelled to the seaside areas to survey the damage, and MP Harold Gurden called for a resolution for intensified measures to control youth hooliganism. Ane of the prosecutors in the trial of some of the Clacton brawlers argued that mods and rockers were youths with no serious views, who lacked respect for police force and order.

References [edit]

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Grossman, Henry; Spencer, Terrance; Saton, Ernest (xiii May 1966). "Revolution in Men's Apparel: Mod Fashions from U.k. are Making a Smash in the U.S." Life. pp. 82–88.
^ Oonagh Jaquest (May 2003). "Jeff Apex on The Modernists". BBC. Archived from the original on 11 January 2009. Retrieved eleven Oct 2008.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Dr. Andrew Wilson (2008). "Mixing the Medicine: The Unintended Consequence of Amphetamine Control on the Northern Soul Scene" (PDF). Internet Journal of Criminology. Archived from the original (PDF) on xiii July 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2008.
^ ^a ^b ^c Covach, John; Flory, Andrew (2012), "Chapter 4: 1964-1966 The Beatles and the british invasion | XII Other important British dejection revival groups | E. The Who", in Covach, John; Flory, Andrew (eds.), What's that audio?: an introduction to rock and its history , New York: Norton, ISBN9780393912043, 6. The Rockers emulated Marlon Brando's motorbike gang leader grapheme in "The Wild I" moving-picture show (a) wore leather clothes; (b) rode motorcycles; and (c) frequently engaged in brawls with the Mods Book preview. Archived 22 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Cohen, Stanley (2002). Folk devils and moral panics: the creation of the Mods and Rockers. Abingdon, England: Routledge. ISBN9780415267120.
^ ^a ^b British Film Commission (BFC) (PDF), Picture Education, archived from the original (PDF) on 4 July 2008
^ ^a ^b Page, Michael (2006). "A rather disjointed narrative of the California mod scene(south) 1980–1983". california-modern-scene.com. Archived from the original on 20 June 2009. Retrieved eleven October 2008.
^ ^a ^b Artavia, Mario (2006). "SoCal Mods". South Bay Scooter Society. Archived from the original on 9 December 2008. Retrieved 11 October 2008.
^ Mods!, Richard Barnes. Eel Pie (1979), ISBN 0-85965-173-viii; Accented Beginners, Colin MacInnes
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^ Outcasts, Dropouts, and Provocateurs: Nonconformists Gear up the Terrain, www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-927666-eight.pdf^{[ dead link ]}
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External links [edit]

Revolution in Men' due south Apparel: Mod Fashions from Great britain are Making a Boom in the U.S., Life Mag, 13 May. 1966, pg. 82-90 - Cover story most mod boom in America
OnThisDay 4 April 1964 BBC Panorama Reported on Mods and Rockers. Tin can't we all just get forth
Mod Subculture at Curlie